Linguistically-driven automated text formatting

ABSTRACT

Systems and techniques for linguistically-driven automated text formatting are described herein. Data representing the linguistic structure of input text may be received from Natural Language Processing (NLP) Services, including but not limited to constituents, dependencies, and coreference relationships. A text model of the input text may be built using the linguistic components and relationships. Cascade rules may be applied to the text model to generate a cascaded text data structure. Cascaded data may be displayed on a range of media, including a phone, tablet, laptop, monitor, VR/AR devices. Cascaded data may be presented in dual screen formats to promote more accurate and efficient reading comprehension, greater ease in teaching native and foreign language grammatical structures, and tools for remediation of reading-related disabilities.

TECHNICAL FIELD

Embodiments described herein generally relate to machine automated textprocessing, driven by large-scale natural language processing (NLP)techniques derived from theoretical linguistics. In some embodiments,more specifically, to constituent and dependency parsing to producecascaded text for the purposes of improving reading comprehension.

BACKGROUND

Standard text formatting entails presenting language in blocks, withlittle formatting beyond basic punctuation and line breaks orindentation indicating paragraphs. The alternative text format describedherein presents text so that linguistic relationships are accentuated,providing support for comprehension processes which may increaseaccuracy or reduce reading time.

Cascaded text formatting transforms conventional block-shaped text intocascading patterns for the purpose of helping readers identifygrammatical structure and related content. Text cascades make the syntaxof a sentence visible. Syntactic units are the building blocks of asentence. When parsing natural language, the reader's mind must do morethan simply “chunk” the sentence into a string of smaller units. Rather,the reader's mind needs to determine dependencies between phrases andrecognize how each phrase is related to larger ones that contain it. Thecascaded text format helps readers identify these relationships within asentence. The human mind's capacity to build sentences through theprocess of embedding language units inside other units enables languageto represent an infinite number of meanings. Accordingly, acascaded-parsing pattern is intended to enable the reader, when lookingat a particular phrase, to immediately perceive how it relates to thephrases that precede or follow it.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

In the drawings, which are not necessarily drawn to scale, like numeralsmay describe similar components in different views. Like numerals havingdifferent letter suffixes may represent different instances of similarcomponents. The drawings illustrate generally, by way of example, butnot by way of limitation, various embodiments discussed in the presentdocument.

FIG. 1 illustrates an example of parse trees defining constituents to beused for linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according toan embodiment.

FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an example of a dependency parseand cascaded text output for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of an example of a dependency parseand cascaded text output for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of cascaded text output forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 5 illustrates an example of cascaded text output augmented toidentify referentially linked phrases for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 6A illustrates a text portion segmented into a plurality ofdependent segments based on grammatical information determined by aconstituency and a dependency parser, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 6B illustrates a text portion displayed with a hierarchicalposition specified for each segment via linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 7 illustrates a block diagram of an example of an environment andsystem for linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according toan embodiment.

FIG. 8 illustrates an example of an environment for receiving linguisticmodification to a cascade format for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 9 illustrates an example of a system for coreference trackingacross sentences for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment.

FIG. 10 illustrates a data flow diagram for an example of a system forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 11 illustrates an example of a method for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a method for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 13 illustrates an example of a method for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 14 illustrates an example of a method for cascading text using amachine learning classifier for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 15 illustrates an example of a method for training a machinelearning classifier to cascade text for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 16 illustrates an example of text transformation for displayingsentences of in a cascaded format for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 17 illustrates an example of a parse structure for hypertext markuplanguage (HTML) code tagged for cascaded text using natural languageprocessing for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment.

FIG. 18 illustrates an example of generating cascaded text from acaptured image using natural language processing forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 19 illustrates an example of a method for generating cascaded textfrom a captured image using natural language processing forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 20 illustrates an example of converting text from a first displayformat to a second display format in an eyewear device using naturallanguage processing for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment.

FIG. 21 illustrates an example of a method for converting text from afirst display format to a second display format in an eyewear deviceusing natural language processing for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 22 illustrates an example of generating cascaded text using naturallanguage processing as text is authored for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 23 illustrates an example of an architecture for user and publisherpreference management of cascaded text using natural language processingbased on feedback input for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 24 illustrates an example of a method for personalization ofcascaded text using natural language processing based on feedback inputfor linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 25 illustrates an example of dual display of cascaded text usingnatural language processing based on feedback input forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 26 illustrates an example of a system for translation of input textin a first language to a cascaded output in a second language forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment.

FIG. 27 illustrates an example of a method for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 28 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a machine uponwhich one or more embodiments may be implemented.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The systems and methods discussed herein utilize linguistic analysesderived from linguistic theory to determine cascades. Such analyses arethe state-of-the-art in automated natural language processing (NLP),allowing the systems and methods discussed herein to capitalize oninputs provided from NLP technology (hereafter, NLP Services).

The systems and methods discussed herein use NLP Services (e.g., aconstituency parser, a dependency parser, a coreference parser, etc.) toparse incoming text into a representation that highlights its underlyinglinguistic properties. Display rules, including cascade rules, are thenapplied to these representations to make linguistic relationships morevisible for the reader.

A linguistic constituent is a word, or group of words, that fills aparticular function in a sentence. For example, in the sentence “Johnbelieved X”, X could be substituted by a single word (“Mary”) or(“facts”) or by a phrase (“the girl”) or (“the girls with curls”) or(“the girl who shouted loudly”) or by an entire clause (“the story wastrue.”). In this case, all of these are constituents that fill the roleof the direct object of “John believed.” Notably, constituents have aproperty of completeness—“the story was” is not a constituent because itcannot stand alone as a grammatical unit. Similarly, “the girl who” or“the” is not a constituent. In addition, constituents may be embeddedwithin other constituents. For example, the phrase “the girls withcurls” is a constituent, but so is “the girls” and “with curls.”However, the phrase “girls with” is not a constituent because it cannotstand alone as a grammatical unit. Consequently, “girls with” cannotfill any grammatical function, whereas the constituent phrases “thegirls” or “with curls” are both eligible to fill necessary grammaticalfunctions in a sentence. A part of speech is a category of syntacticfunction (e.g., noun, verb, preposition, etc.) of a word. Unlike partsof speech that describe the function of a single word, constituencydelineates sets of words that function as a unit to fill particulargrammatical roles in the sentence (e.g., subject, direct object, etc.).Hence, the concept of ‘constituency’ provides more information about howgroups of words are related within the sentence.

The systems and methods discussed herein implement constituentcascading, in which constituents are displayed following a set of rulesthat determine various levels of indentation. Rules are jointly based oninformation from a constituency parser and a dependency parser. Theconstituency parser is an NLP Service that identifies constituents asjust described using a theory of phrase structure (e.g., X-bar Theory).The dependency parser is an NLP Service that provides labeled syntacticdependencies for each word in a sentence, describing the syntacticfunction held by that word (and the constituent it heads.) The set ofsyntactic dependencies is enumerated by the universal dependencyinitiative (UD, http://universaldependencies.org) which aims to providea cross-linguistically consistent syntactic annotation standard. Apartfrom English, the syntactic analysis may support a variety of additionallanguages, by way of example and not limitation, including: Chinese(Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), French, German, Italian, Japanese,Korean, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish.

Through implementing a process of text cascading, the systems andmethods discussed herein provide visual cues to the underlyinglinguistic structure in texts. These cues serve a didactic function, andnumerous embodiments are presented that exploit these cues to promotemore accurate and efficient reading comprehension, greater ease inteaching grammatical structures, and tools for remediation ofreading-related disabilities.

In an example, the cascade is formed using line breaks and indentationsbased on constituency and dependency data obtained from parsingoperations. Cascade rules are applied such that prioritization is placedon constituents remaining complete on a line, or indicated as acontinuous unit in situations where device display limitations mayprevent display on a single line. This promotes easy identification ofwhich groups of words serve together in a linguistic function, so thatconstituents can be identified more easily. Accurate languagecomprehension requires the ability to identify relationships between theentities or concepts presented in the text. A prerequisite to this isthe ability to parse out constituents (i.e., units of text that serve adiscrete grammatical function.) Evidence suggests that poorcomprehenders have substantial difficulties identifying syntacticboundaries that define constituents during both reading and oralproduction (e.g., Breen et al., 2006; Miller and Schwanenflugel, 2008).Moreover, boundary recognition is especially important for complexsyntactic constructions of the sort found in expository texts (i.e.,textbooks, newspapers, etc.). These facts suggest that the ability toidentify syntactic boundaries in texts is especially important forreading comprehension, and that methods of cuing these boundaries mayserve as an important aid for struggling readers. However, standard textpresentation methods (i.e., presenting texts in left-justified blocks)do not explicitly identify linguistic constituents, or provide any meansto support the process of doing so. The systems and methods discussedherein present a means of explicitly cuing syntactic boundaries anddependency relationships via visual cues such as line-breaks (e.g.,carriage return, line feed, etc.), indentations, highlighting in color,italics, underlining, etc.

FIG. 1 illustrates an example of parse trees 100 defining constituentsto be used for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment. Linguistic theory provides establisheddiagnostic tests for linguistic constituents (also called phrases) andformalisms for representing the relationships between them. These testsinclude by way of example, and not of limitation, i) do-so/onesubstitution, ii) coordination, iii) topicalization, iv) ellipsis, v)clefting/pseudoclefting, vi) passivization, vii) wh-fronting, and viii)right-node-raising, ix) pronominal replacement, and x) questionanswering, xi) omission, and xii) adverbial intrusion.

A predominant theory known as X′ Theory (pronounced as “X-bar Theory”)describes how phrases are created (Chomsky, 1970; Jackendoff, 1977).This theory abstracts over particular parts of speech (e.g., nouns,verbs, etc.) and asserts that all types of phrases, described as XPs orX-phrases (e.g., if X=a noun then it is a noun phrase; if X=verb then itis a verb phrase, etc.), are created via 3 general binary-branchingre-write rules. First, a phrase (“XP) consists of an optional‘Specifier’ and a required ‘X-bar’ in any order. Second, an X-bar mayoptionally consist of an X-bar and an adjunct, of any type licensed tomodify the X-bar. Third, the X-bar consists of the obligatory head ofthe phrase (e.g., a word of any part of speech) and, optionally, anynumber of complement phrases licensed by the head, occurring in anylinear order.

These rules may be used to create parse trees 100, such that specifiersand X-bars, and heads and complements are in a sister-hood relationship,and XPs are in a maximal position in the hierarchy, dominating the X′,which in turn dominates the X. For example, a verb phrase ‘saw the girl’may be represented as a VP with the V head and the NP complement, whichis in turn represented as a N′ with ‘the’ in the specifier position andthe N′ as the projection from the N head as shown in parse tree 105.Note that other adjunct phrases (like prepositional phrases) could befurther attached to the N′ phrase of the NP, as in the sentence 110 ‘sawthe girl with the curls.’ Similarly, specifier phrases may be attachedto the V′, such as the adverb ‘recently’ as shown in parse tree 110.Instances of a specifier have been simplified in FIG. 1, but these arealso understood to be XP phrases.

The systems and methods discussed herein utilize these phrase structurerules to specify Part 1 of a 2-part Process of Constituent Cuing. Part 1stipulates how to divide a sentence into smaller pieces for display.Namely, sentences are broken up into constituent pieces, such that nowords are separated from their dominating XP phrase. (e.g., as shown inFIG. 6A, element 1110 of FIG. 11, element 1205 of FIG. 12, etc.) Forexample, a break between ‘with’ and ‘curls’ would not happen because‘curls’ is dominated by the PP headed by ‘with’. Similarly, ‘the’ wouldnot occur on a separate line from ‘girl’ because they are both dominatedby the NP headed by ‘girl’. Hence, a segment, for the purposes of thecascade generator, is defined as a phrase dominated by an XP which willstay together on a presentation line. A break between ‘saw’ and ‘the’could happen, because ‘the’ is dominated by a separate XP phrase from‘saw’ (i.e., saw is dominated by a VP and ‘the’ is dominated by an NP).Similarly, a break between ‘girl’ and ‘with’ may occur because ‘with’ isdominated by a PP and ‘girl is dominated by an NP’. Line breaks occur atthe presence of an XP because this characterizes a new constituent. Ifthe line length is too small to allow line breaks between XPs, then linebreaks will occur at X′ levels, with an accompanying visual formatindicating the continuation of the constituent (including, but notlimited to, bracketing, flush indentation, color coding, italic stylematching, etc.)

Example embodiments of Part 1 may utilize other phrase structuretheories (e.g., Bare Phrase Structure, etc.) as a representativelanguage for delimiting constituents. Some aspects of the systems andmethods discussed herein are that line breaks occur at constituentboundaries and that constituent boundaries are established based onestablished linguistic diagnostic tests (e.g., substitution, movement,clefting, questioning, etc.). The constituent boundaries are constantregardless of specific phrase structure representation.

In an example embodiment, an automated constituent parser is used toprovide constituents for use in the Cascade generator, but the cascadegenerator does not depend on use of an automated parser or on anyparticular automated parser. This parser is denoted as an NLP Service(e.g., such as the constituency parser 1025 of the NLP service 1020 asdiscussed in FIG. 10, etc.). It will be understood that a variety ofparsing techniques and services may be used to identify constituentsthat are then processed by the cascade generator.

Part 2 of the Constituent Cascading operation specifies an indentationscheme to provide cues to linguistic structure (e.g., as shown in FIG.6B, etc.). These cues are based on output from an automated dependencyparser, which specifies the specific linguistic function of each wordwith respect to each other word (e.g., as shown in element 1115 or FIG.11, element 1210 of FIG. 12, etc.). This function is used to determinehorizontal displacement (indentation) of the cascade. The cues may berepresented by horizontal displacement (indentation) of the constituentphrases within the cascade so that what is being indented are phrases ona given line. The cascade refers to the overall result including phraseboundaries, line breaks, and horizontal displacement.

The dependency parser alone cannot identify linguistic constituents.This is because the dependency parser assigns linguistic functions towords, and not to constituents. The system for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting creates a language model (1050 in FIG. 10),which links a full constituent with the specific dependency associatedwith the head of that constituent (e.g., FIG. 6A). For example, the headof a constituent, XP, is the X; viz., the head of a noun phrase (NP) isthe noun (N), the head of a prepositional phrase (PP) is the preposition(P). The dependency associated with the head of core arguments andnon-core dependents is used to trigger line breaks and horizontaldisplacement. The dependency parser 625 (e.g., the dependency parser1035 as described in FIG. 10, etc.) generates dependency output 635(e.g., the dependency data 1040 as described in FIG. 10, etc.) thatprovides dependencies for words in the text. A core-argument andnon-core dependent selector 640 receives constituency output 630 (e.g.,the constituency data 1030 as described in FIG. 10, etc.) from theconstituency parser 620 (e.g., the constituency parser 1025 as describedin FIG. 10, etc.) and the dependency output 635 and selects dependenciesrelated to the constituents to generate the linguistic structure 615(e.g., the model 1050 as described in FIG. 10, etc.). Consequently, asystem of linguistically-driven automated text formatting requires bothconstituency and a dependency information.

An alternative embodiment may include only a dependency parser, but alsorequires additional rules that define linguistic constituents (e.g.,phrase structure rules). Such rules do not have to comprise acomputationally implemented parser, but may include any collection ofrules based on linguistic theory that describes constituents. Thisincludes, but is not limited to, heuristics for identifying constituentsbased on keywords (e.g., prepositions, subordinating clause markers(viz., that, which, who), clause conjunctions (viz., either, but, and),and other single-word indicators of phrase structure.

An example embodiment of the Constituent Cascading operation is based ona characterization of constituents and dependencies within a sentence,plus any other linguistic features provided by the enlistedNLP-Services, including by way of example but not of limitation,coreference, sentiment analysis, named entity recognition, and topictracking. In addition to cascading, the output from these parsers may beused to modify text via highlighting, color-coding, underlining,accompanying audio information, and the like to provide cognitive cuesto reduce the cognitive load on the user.

While cascading is used as an example, the systems and methods discussedherein are applicable to a variety of visual, audible, and tactileoutputs that provide a user with a reduced cognitive load when engaginga text. In another example embodiment, other formatting may be used toeffectuate cuing for the user to reduce cognitive load. In an exampleembodiment, cuing may be achieved by modification of text formattingand/or accentuation such as using colors, italics, providing videooutput, vibratory output, audio output (e.g., tones, etc.), and the likeusing parsing outputs such as constituency data and dependency data.

FIG. 2 illustrates a block diagram of an example of a dependency parse205 and cascaded text output 210 for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

A dependency parser may adopt various labeling conventions or dependencysets with which to specify linguistic functions. The systems and methodsdiscussed herein incorporate the use of any dependency set forspecifying word-to-word linguistic functions, including those based onsyntax, semantics, or prosody. In an example embodiment, the dependencyset from the Universal Dependency (UD) initiative is adopted, which is acooperative, open-source, international project for developing across-linguistically valid dependency set. The set of relations isavailable at https://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/index.html.

The UD dependency set is split into core arguments for nominals andclauses and dependents of other types, including non-core dependents(i.e., oblique arguments, adverbial clauses, relative clauses) andnominal modifiers (i.e., adjectives, noun attributes, and clausalmodifiers). The Process of Constituent Cascading stipulates that corearguments and non-core dependents should be obligatorily indented undertheir heads. This indentation provides a visual cue to the corerelationships within the sentence. Hence, a direct object or an indirectobject (labeled as ‘obj’ or ‘iobj’ in the dependency parse 205) will beindented under the verb that they modify (often labeled ‘root’) as shownin cascaded output 210. In an example, dependents of nominals may alsobe indented under their heads. These include a varied set of nominal andadjectival modifiers (i.e., possessives, reduced relative clauses,numeric modifiers, and appositive phrases). The cascaded text output 210includes the indentations based on the dependency parse 205. The amountof indentation may be specified in system preferences, as describedbelow. In an example embodiment, dependent nominals are treated on acase-by-case basis depending on the length of the line or the type ofconstituent, with the goal of minimizing line breaks whenever possible.Different amounts of indentation may optionally be applied to differentdependent types in order to distinguish them visually.

FIG. 3 illustrates a block diagram of an example of a dependency parse305 and cascaded text output 305 for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment.

Indentation rules are applied to constituents. When constituents areembedded within other constituents (e.g., relative clause, complementclauses), un-indent rules apply to signal the completion of aconstituent as shown in cascade output 310. Un-indent results inhorizontal displacement being restored to the position of the head ofthe embedded phrase. This creates a cascade pattern that provides clearcues to the structure of the embedding and relationships between eachverb and its arguments. The cascaded text output 310 includes theindentations based on the dependency parse 305 according to cascaderules specified in the cascade generator. Additional processing may beused to provide additional cues for cascade output displayed on deviceswith display limitations. For example, additional characters or othersignals may be inserted to indicate that a constituent wraps to anadditional line, etc. In these cases, horizontal displacement remainsconsistent for the wrapped constituent (e.g., if the constituent beginsat location 40, then the wrapped segment will also begin at location 40and will bear visual marking (e.g., bracketing, shading, etc. toindicate that it is a continuation.)

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of cascaded text output 400 forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. Horizontal positions indicate constituents that should beassociated together. For example, the positioning of the verb “left”indicates that its subject is “the janitor” (and not “the principal”,for example.) as shown in cascade 405. Similarly, the positioning of thephrase “every night” indicates that it goes with the verb “cleaned” andnot “noticed”, for example.) It is noted that the vertical lines shownin FIG. 4 are for illustrative purposes; they are not part of the textoutput.

Horizontal displacement is similarly used to signal pre-posedsubordinate clauses by indenting the initial clause with respect to thematrix clause as shown in cascade 410. This technique provides clearcues as to the central information in the sentence, and to thesubordinate status of the initial clause.

In another example embodiment, the Cascading process uses the Specifierand Complement positions from an X-bar theory analysis to determineindentations, without reference to specific syntactic dependencies asgiven by a dependency parser. This capitalizes on the fact thatspecifier and complement positions do themselves specify generaldependencies between constituents in the sentence. However, in anembodiment limited to 2 types of dependencies (e.g., a Specifier andComplement, etc.), the information available for cuing the linguisticstructure within a sentence is more limited.

In another example embodiment, the Cascading process determinesindentations according to a list of particular dependencies withassociated indentation amounts, which may be supplied by the user. Forexample, a user may prefer that direct objects be indented 4 spaces, butindirect objects will be indented only 2 spaces. In one embodiment,these user specifications are made by a teacher or tutor who may wish toemphasize particular grammatical relationships as part of an integratedlesson plan. Such specification may occur on a case-by-case basis, orfor categories of dependency types. For example, a user may specify thatcore arguments should be indented more than non-core modifiers. Notethat the Constituent Cascading operation determines IF a constituent isindented based on its dependency type; the user preferences determinehow much indentation is reflected in the formatting. User preferencesmay additionally affect display attributes of the cascade, such as fonttype, font size, font color, line length, etc.

In an example embodiment, the cascade automatically adjusts to fitconstraints of the display device. For example, a computer screen mayallow longer line lengths than display on a tablet or phone. If the linelength is too small to allow line breaks between XPs, then line breakswill occur at X′ levels, with no additional horizontal displacement.Hence, the visual cue associated with horizontal displacement isreserved to signal the beginning of a new linguistic dependency.Additional cuing (e.g., brackets, font styling, color) may be added topreserve easy identification of the constituent),

FIG. 5 illustrates an example 500 of cascaded text output augmented toidentify referentially linked phrases for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment. ConstituentCascading operations define the cascade in relation to syntactic andsemantic relationships between constituents. In an example embodiment, aseparate NLP service that parses text into referents and antecedents isused to extend linguistically-driven automated text formatting toinclude Referential Cuing, such that visual cues (e.g., color, etc.)identify referential relationships between words or constituents (e.g.,as shown in FIG. 8). This entails presenting antecedents with the samefont characteristics as their pronominal referents (denoted in FIG. 8with underlining). Referential cuing helps to prevent confusion insentences such as those in FIGS. 5 and 8 regarding whether the personwho ‘occupied herself’ is ‘the performer’ or ‘the soloist’ as shown incascade 505. An example of Referential Cuing at the constituent level(e.g., the entire phrase ‘measure the room’ is the antecedent of ‘it’ isshown in cascade 510. Referential Cuing operations are implemented, byway of example and not of limitation, based on the output of anautomated coreference resolution parser (NLP Service), such as thatavailable in Stanford CoreNLP or AllenNLP. Coreference resolution findsexpressions that refer to the same entity in a text. This information isincorporated into the language model that serves as input to the CascadeGenerator. Coreference information may also be indicated by hand-codedrules or formatting, as might be produced by trained linguistictechnicians, or by automated processing via non-rule-based probabilisticinference engines.

Augmentation of cascades to show coreference cues illustrates by exampleand not by limitation how linguistic properties other than those basedon constituents or dependencies may be signaled in a cascade. Forexample, the coreference parser may be substituted with alternative NLPServices that produce analyses that show various linguisticrelationships within the text. Examples include, but are not limited to,named entity recognition, sentiment analysis, semantic role labeling,textual entailment, topic tracking, prosodic analysis. These may beimplemented either as rule-based or probabilistic inference systems. Theoutput of these NLP Services provides information that may be used tomodify display properties of the cascade in ways that emphasizelinguistic relationships. These modifications may occur within sentencesor between sentences and serve as cues to aid a reader or learner inmaintaining coherence as s/he reads.

As described herein, there are provided various embodiments of systemsand methods for generating cascaded text displays. In one embodiment 600illustrated in FIG. 6A, a text portion 605 is segmented into a pluralityof dependent segments based on grammatical information determined fromthe text portion 605 based on output from the NLP services 610. Each ofthese are a complete constituent, as defined by the constituency parser620, and have a dependency role as determined by the dependency parser625 associated with the head of the constituent. In one embodiment,constituents are identified by their maximal projection (XP) andassigned to the dependency relation associated with the head of thatprojection (X). For example, the constituent ‘the principal’ has twodependencies associated with it (det and nsubj), but the full NPconstituent is assigned as an nsubj for interpretation by the cascadegenerator.

FIG. 6B illustrates a text portion 605 including indentations in acascade 630 in accordance with a hierarchical position specified foreach segment via linguistically-driven automated text formattingprovided by a cascade generator 635, according to an embodiment.

FIG. 7 is a block diagram of an example of an environment 700 and asystem 705 for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment. FIG. 7 may provide features as described inFIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, and 6B. The environment may include the system 705which may be a cloud-based delivery system (or other computing platform(e.g., a virtualized computing infrastructure, software-as-a-service(SaaS), internet of things (IoT) network, etc.)). The system may bedistributed amongst a variety of backend systems 710 that provideinfrastructure services such as computing capacity and storage capacityfor a cloud services provider hosting the system 705. The system 705 maybe communicatively coupled (e.g., via wired network, wireless network,cellular network, shared bus, etc.) to a network 720 (e.g., theinternet, private network, public network, etc.). An end-user computingdevice 715 may be communicatively connected to the network and mayestablish a connection to the system 705. The end-user device maycommunicate with the system 705 via a web-browser, downloadedapplication, on-demand application, etc. In an example, components ofthe system may be prepared for delivery to the end-user computing device715 via an installed application providing offline access to features ofthe system 705.

The system 705 may provide direct online connection via the end-usercomputing device 715, may distribute a set of packaged services toend-user application on the end-user computing device 715 that operatesoffline without internet connectivity, and as a hybrid with an end-userapplication that connects (e.g., via a plug-in, etc.) to the cloudservice (or other computing platform) over the internet. Hybrid modeenables the user to read in cascade format regardless of connectivity,but still provides data to improve the system 705. The end-userapplication may be deployed in a number of forms. For example, a browserplug-in and extensions may enable users to change the formatting of thetext they read on the web and in applications using the cascadingformat. In another example, the end-user application may be integratedinto a menu bar, clip board, or text editor so that when a userhighlights text using a mouse or hotkeys, a window may be presented withselected text rendered using the cascade format. In another example, theend-user application may be a portable document file (PDF) reader thatmay input a PDF file as an input source and may output the cascadeformat for display to the user. In yet another example, the end-userapplication may be an augmented image enhancement that translates liveview from a camera and may apply optical character recognition (OCR) toconvert the image to text and render the layout in cascade format inreal time. The version control service 755 may track applicationversions and may provide periodic updates to the portable componentsprovided to the application executing on the end-user computing device715 when connected to the internet.

According to an example embodiment, end-user computing device 715includes OCR capabilities that enable the user to capture an image oftext via camera (e.g., on their phone, etc.) and have it instantlyconverted into the cascade formatted text (e.g., as shown in FIG. 18).According to an embodiment, the end-user computing device 715 includesor is mounted in a user-worn device such as smart glasses, smart contactlenses, and the like, where input of text seen by the user is convertedinto cascaded format for enhanced comprehension. In this way the textmay be converted in real-time by the user's personal viewing device.According to another example embodiment, end-user computing device 715provides augmented video (AV), augmented reality (AR), and virtualreality (VR) application of the cascade formatting may be completedwithin user-worn visual display devices, including AV and VR headsets,glasses, and contact or implantable lenses to allow the user to see textin the cascade format.

The systems and methods discussed herein are applicable to a variety ofenvironments where text is rendered on a device by processing the textand converting the text to cascade formatting. Display of text on ascreen requires instructions on rendering and the cascade instructionset may be inserted in the command sequence. This may apply to adocument type (e.g., PDF, etc.) and to systems with a rendering engineembedded where the call to the rendering engine may be intercepted andthe cascaded formatting instructions inserted. In an example, a user mayscan a barcode, a quick response (QR) code, or other mechanism forproviding access to content (e.g., on a menu, product label, etc.) andthe content may be returned in cascaded format.

The system 705 may include a variety of service components that may beexecuting in whole or in part on various computing devices of thebackend systems 710 including a cascade generator 725, a naturallanguage processing (NLP) service 730, a machine learning service 735,an analytics service 740, a user profile service 745, an access controlservice 750, and a version control service 755. The cascade generator725, the NLP service 730, the machine learning service 735, theanalytics service 740, the user profile service 745, the access controlservice 750, and the version control service 755 may includeinstructions including application programming interface (API)instructions that may provide data input and output from and to externalsystems and amongst the other services.

The system 705 may operate in a variety of modes: an end-user (e.g.,reader, etc.) converts text on local client using a local client thathas a copy of offline components for generating cascaded text, theend-user may send text to the system 705 to convert standard text tocascaded text, a publisher may send text to the system 705 to converttext to cascaded format, the publisher may use an offline component setof the system 705 to convert its text to cascade format, and thepublisher may publish text in traditional block formatting or cascadedformatting using the system 705.

The cascade generator 725 may receive text input and may pass the textto the NLP service 730 parser to generate linguistic data. Thelinguistic data may include, by way of example and not limitation, partsof speech, word lemmas, a constituent parse tree, a chart of discreteconstituents, a list of named entities, a dependency graph, list ofdependency relations, linked coreference table, linked topic list, listof named entities, output of sentiment analysis, semantic role labels,entailment-referenced confidence statistics. Hence, for a given text,linguistic analysis may return a breakdown of words with a rich set oflinguistic information for each token. This information may include alist of relationships between words or constituents that occur inseparate sentences or in separate paragraphs.

The cascade generator 725 may apply cascade formatting rules andalgorithms to a language model generated by the machine learning service735 created using constituency data and dependency data to generateprobabilistic cascade output.

FIG. 8 illustrates an example of an environment 800 for receivinglinguistic modification to a cascade format for linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment. A user interface805 and plug-in 810 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1A, 1B,and 2-7. The user interface 805 and the plug-in 810 may connect to thesystem 705 as described in FIG. 7. The system 705 may include acoreference parser 810 that may parse text and identify related terms inthe text. For example, “The performer” in the cascaded sentencedisplayed in the user interface 805 may be referred to by a pronoun inother portions of the sentence. “The performer” and “herself” may behighlighted (e.g., underlined, highlighted in color, displayed in acontrasting color from other text, italicized, etc.) to show that theyrefer to the same entity. In an example, the coreference parser 810 maybe substituted with alternative NLP Services that produce analyses thatshow linguistic relationships within the text. A mode selection button815 may be provided that allows a user to turn features on or off. Forexample, text may be displayed in a cascade format and when a cascademode is enabled, the related terms may be highlighted when coreferencetracking is enabled, etc.

FIG. 9 illustrates an example of a system 900 for coreference trackingacross sentences for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment. The example, 900 may provide features asdescribed in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7 to 8.

The system 900 may include a cloud-based delivery system 705 that mayinclude a coreference parser 910, a constituency parser 915, adependency parser 920, and a topic tracker 925. The coreference parser910, constituency parser 915, dependency parser 920, and topic tracker925 may provide an indication of relationships between particular piecesof text. These systems may work in conjunction with a cascade generator(e.g., the cascade generator 725 as described in FIG. 7, etc.) to outputcascaded text to a user interface 905 with topics and pronominalreferences indicated by visual cues (e.g., using colors, etc.).

FIG. 10 illustrates a dataflow diagram for a system 1000 forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The system 1000 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1to 5, 6A, 6B, and 9.

A user may provide input 1005 that includes text. In an example, thetext may be provided as entered text, text captured using OCRprocessing, text captured via an application or browser plugin,hypertext markup language (HTML), etc. The text may also include visualcontent, including figures, tables, graphs, pictures, andvisually-enhanced text, including headings with font size or styleenhancements. Input may also come directly from the user, such that, forexample, the user may type in a text string “The patient who the girlliked was coming today.” An input processor 1010 may process the textcontent to remove formatting and special characters and, in the case ofparagraphs, split text into individual sentences.

Processed input 1015 that includes processed text may be transmitted bythe input processor 1010 to a set of NLP services 1020. According to anembodiment, two primary NLP-Services are a constituency parser 1025 anda dependency parser 1035. A constituent of a sentence is alinguistically-defined part of a sentence, which may coincide with aword, phrase or clause. Constituents are organized hierarchically,defined by phrase structure rules (e.g., as shown in FIG. 1, etc.). Theconstituency parser 1025 may process the input text and may generate andtransmit constituency data 1030 to the data processor 1045 that includesa parse tree (e.g., a constituency parse), a chart of discreteconstituents, parts of speech, word lemmas, and metadata.

For example, the constituency parser 1025 may generate constituency data1030 for “The patient who the girl liked was coming today.” as shown inTable 1.

TABLE 1 {  “class_probabilities”: [[1.0, 1.8036938609355957e−10,8.350951190055824e−15, ...]],  “hierplane_tree”: {   “linkNameToLabel”:{“VB”: “pos”, “VBD”: “pos”, “VBG”:   “pos”, ...},   “nodeTypeToStyle”:{“ADD”: [“color0”], “ADJP”: [“color5”], ...},   “root”: {   “attributes”: [“S”],    “children”: [     {      “attributes”:[“NP”],      “children”: [...],      “link”: “VP”,      “nodeType”:“VP”,      “word”: “was coming today”     },     ...    ],    ...   },  “text”: “The patient who the girl liked was coming today .”  }, “num_spans”: 55,  “pos_tags”: [“DT”, “NN”, “WP”, “DT”, “NN”, “VBD”,“VBD”,  “VBG”, “NN”, “.” ],  “spans”: [[ 0, 0 ], [ 0, 1 ], [ 0, 2 ], [0, 3 ], ...],  “tokens”: [“The”, “patient”, “who”, “the”, “girl”,“liked”, “was”, “coming”, “today”, “.”],  “trees”: “(S (NP (NP (DT The)(NN patient)) (SBAR (WHNP (WP who)) (S (NP (DT the) (NN girl)) (VP (VBDliked))))) (VP (VBD was) (VP (VBG coming) (NP (NN today)))) (. .))” }

The processed input 1015 that includes processed text may be transmittedby the input processor to a dependency parser 1035 of the NLP services1020. The dependency parser 1035 may process the input text and maygenerate and transmit dependency data 1040, which provides data aboutdependency relationships between words to the data processor 1045. Thedependency data 1040 may include a parse tree or directed graph,describing dependent children embedded under a root note with additionalhierarchical embeddings (e.g. FIG. 3), tokens, dependency labels, andmetadata. For example, the dependency parser 1035 may generatedependency data 1040 for “The patient who the girl liked was comingtoday.” is shown in Table 3.

TABLE 2 {  “hierplane_tree”: {   “linkToPosition”: {“acomp”: “right”,“ccomp”: “right”, ...},   “root”: {    “attributes”: [“VERB”],   “children”: [     {      “attributes”: [“NOUN”],      “children”:[...],      ...     }    ],    “link”: “root”,    “nodeType”: “root”,   “spans”: [{“end”: 42, “start”: 35}],    “word”: “coming”   },  “text”: “The patient who the girl liked was coming today .”  }, “pos”: [“DET”, “NOUN”, “PRON”, “DET”, “NOUN”, “VERB”, “AUX”, “VERB”,“NOUN”, “PUNCT”],  “predicted_dependencies”: [“dep”, “nsubj”, “prep”,“det”, “nsubj”, “dep”, “cop”, “root”, “tmod”, “punct”], “predicted_heads”: [2, 8, 2, 5, 6, 3, 8, 0, 8, 8],  “words”: [“The”,“patient”, “who”, “the”, “girl”, “liked”, “was”, “coming”, “today”, “.”]}

In another example, the dependency parser 1035 may generate dependencydata 1040 for “The patient who the girl liked was coming today.” isshown in Table 2.

TABLE 3 “stanza”: [ {  “lemma”: “the”,  “feats”:“Definite=Def|PronType=Art”,  “deprel”: “det”,  “head”: 2,  “misc”:“start_char=0|end_char=3”,  “xpos”: “DT”,  “id”: 1,  “text”: “The”, “upos”: “DET” }, {  “lemma”: “patient”,  “feats”: “Number=Sing”, “deprel”: “nsubj”,  “head”: 8,  “misc”: “start_char=4|end_char=11”, “id”: 2,  “xpos”: “NN”,  “upos”: “NOUN”,  “text”: “patient” }, { “lemma”: “who”,  “feats”: “PronType=Rel”,  “head”: 6,  “deprel”: “obj”, “misc”: “start_char=12|end_char=15”  “id”: 3,  “xpos”: “WP”,  “text”:“who”,  “upos”: “PRON” }, {  “lemma”: “the”,  “feats”:“Definite=Def|PronType=Art”,  “deprel”: “det”,  “head”: 5,  “misc”:“start_char=16|end_char=19”  “upos”: “DET”,  “text”: “the”,  “id”: 4. “xpos”: “DT” }, {  “feats”: “Number=Sing”,  “lemma”: “girl”,  “xpos”:“NN”,  “id”: 5,  “text”: “girl”,  “upos”: “NOUN”,  “misc”:“start_char=20|end_char=24”,  “deprel”: “nsubj”,  “head”:6 }, {  “xpos”:“VBD”,  “id”: 6,  “upos”: “VERB”,  “text”: “liked”,  “head”: 2, “deprel”: “ackrelcl”,  “misc”: “start_char=25|end_char=30”,  “feats”:“Mood=Ind|Tense=Past|VerbForm=Fin”  “lemma”: “like” }, {

A data processor 1045 may generate a model 1050 using the constituencydata 1030 and the dependency data 1040 and information from any otherNLP services. The model 1050 may include parts of speech, word lemmas, aconstituent parse tree, a chart of discrete constituents, a list ofnamed entities, a dependency graph, a list of dependency relations,linked coreference table, linked topic list, output of sentimentanalysis, semantic role labels, entailment-referenced confidencestatistics.

In an example, the data processor 1045 may generate the model 1050 for“The patient who the girl liked was coming today.” as shown in Table 4.

TABLE 4 {  “pos_tags”: [“DT”, “NN”, “WP”, “DT”, “NN”,  “VBD”, “VBD”,“VBG”, “NN”,  “tokens”: [“The”, “patient”, “who”, “the”, “girl”,“liked”, “was”, “coming”, “today” “.”],  “root”: {   “link”: “S”,  “children”: [    {     “attributes”: [“NP”],     “word”: “The patientwho the girl liked”,     “children”: [...],     “link”: “NP”,    “nodeType”: “NP”    },    ...,    {     “constituency_pos”: “.”,    “previous_constituency_pos”: “NN”,     “dependency”: “punct”,    “attributes”: [“.”],     “dependency_pos”: “PUNCT”,     “word”: “.”,    “nodeType”: “.”,     “previous_dependency”: “tmod”,     “link”: “.”   }   ],   “nodeType”: “S”,   “word”: “The patient who the girl likedwas coming   today .”   “attributes”: [“S”]  },  “trees”: “(S (NP (NP(DT The) (NN patient)) (SBAR (WHNP (WP who)) (S (NP (DT the) (NN girl))(VP (VBD liked))))) (VP (VBD was) (VP (VBG coming) (NP (NN today)))) (..))”,  “dependencies”: [“dep”, “nsubj”, “prep”, “det”, “nsubj”, “dep”,“cop”, “root”, “tmod”, “punct”],  “pos” : [“DET”, “NOUN”, “PRON”, “DET”,“NOUN”, “VERB”, “AUX”, “VERB”, “NOUN”, “PUNCT”] }

The model 1050 may be processed by a cascade generator 1055. The cascadegenerator 1055 may apply cascade rules to the model 1050 to generatecascaded output 1060. Cascade rules are operations that are triggeredfor execution based on detection of specific constituents ordependencies in the parsing output. The operations executed by thecascade rules may include determining whether a line break should beinserted into output, an indent level for a line of text, and otheroutput generation operations that create cues for a user. In an example,the cascade rules may be used to generate a text model that includesdata identifying the placement of indentations and line breaks in textoutput to be displayed on a display device. The cascade generator 1055may return the cascaded text and metadata in the cascaded output 1060.For example, the cascade generator 1055 may generate cascaded output1060 using cascade rules as shown in Table 5 for the sentence “thepatient who the girl liked was coming.”

TABLE 5 1. Identify the initial constituent in the sentence and checkdependency type of the head of the constituent. If a subordinate clause,then indent word 1. If beginning of the matrix clause, then no indent.2. Identify the smallest constituent and its associated dependency andprint on a line according to the rules for that dependency. Here, ‘thepatient’ is identified as an NP with an nsubj dependency. Print oncurrent line. The patient 3. Constituency Parser identifies the nextconstituent. In this example “who the girl liked” is identified as anSBAR constituent with the dependency label ackrelcl, which indicatesthat it is a nominai modifier. The SBAR contains two XPsub-constituents, an NP and a VP. The NP holds the dependency nsubj,which triggers a line break at the beginning of the NP with indentation:  The patient     who the girl 4. The remaining portion of the SBAR(viz., the VP) is comprised of the ‘liked’. Its ackrelcl dependencytriggers a line break with indent:  The patient    who the girl     liked 5. Constituency parser identifies ‘was coming’ as the nextconstituent Dependency parser identifies ‘coming’ as the root associatedwith ‘patient’. Unindent to the same level as ‘the patient’.   Thepatient     who the girl       liked   was coming 6. Insert line breakand indent before “today” because dependency parser marked the node as“obl:tmod”:   The patient     who the girl      liked   was coming   today 7. Append punctuation:   The patient     who the girl     liked   was coming    today.

In another example, the cascade generator 1055 may generate cascadedoutput 1060 using cascade rules as shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6 1. Append “The patient” as no other rules applied:  The patient2. Constituency Parser marked “who” as a “WP” part of speech. Apply aline break and indent:  The patient    who 3. Parser marked phrase “thegirl liked” as an S, which is comprised of an NP with an nsubjdependency and a VP with an ackrelcl dependency. Apply line break at theend of the NP:  The patient    who the girl 4. Since the NP is an nsubjin relation to the VP, apply linebreak with indent under 'who the girl'and display VP The patient   who the girl     liked 4. Because liked' isthe end of the VP constituent unindent the next word “was” to the levelof the phrase previous to the S (i.e., “The patient”):  The patient   who the girl      liked  was 5. Append “coming” to current linebecause it is in the same constituent as ‘was’ (viz. under a VP):  Thepatient    who the girl      liked  was coming 6. Insert line break andindent before “today” because dependency parser marked the node as“obl:tmod” (viz., oblique temporal modifier)  The patient    who thegirl      liked  was coming     today 7. Append punctuation  The patient   who the girl     liked  was coming     today.

Other examples of cascaded text are shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 We the people  of the United States,   in order    to form     amore perfect Union,    establish   Justice,  insure   domesticTranquility,  provide   for the common defense,  promote   the generalWelfare,  and secure   the Blessings    of Liberty   to ourselves   and  our Posterity, do ordain and establish  this Constitution   for theUnited States of America. The senator  who the report   criticizedreferred  to the chairman   of the committee. The principle noticed that the janitor   who cleaned    in the classroom    every night  leftquickly   after the last announcement

FIG. 11 illustrates an example of a method 1100 forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The method 1100 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1to 5, 6A, 6B, 7, and 10.

At operation 1105, a text portion may be obtained from an interface. Inan example, the interface may be a physical keyboard, a soft keyboard, atext-to speech dictation interface, a network interface, or a diskcontroller interface. In an example, the text portion may be a string oftext in a common format selected from the group: rich text, plain text,hypertext markup language, extensible markup language, or AmericanStandard Code for Information Interchange.

At operation 1110, the text portion may be segmented into a plurality ofdependent segments. The segmentation may be based on evaluation of thetext portion using a constituency parser and a dependency parser. In anexample, the constituency parser identifies complete segments that holdparticular dependency roles as identified by the dependency parser.

At operation 1115, the plurality of dependent segments may be encodedaccording to cuing rules describing a hierarchical position of eachsegment. In an example, a text model of the text portion may be builtusing output of the constituency and dependency parsers, plus otherNLP-Services, and cascade rules may be applied to the text model togenerate encoded segments. In an example, the text model may be a datastructure including parts of speech, lemmas, constituency chart, parsetree and a list of dependencies for each word in the text. An encodedsegment may include text and metadata defining a hierarchical positionfor the dependent segments. In an example, the dependent segments may besegments from a sentence. In an example, the hierarchical position maycorrespond to an offset of the encoded segment relative to another oneof the dependent segments in the user interface. In an example, theencoded segments may include line break data and indent data. In anexample, segmentation of the text portion may include appending the textportion to another text portion, modifying indentation of the textportion, or inserting a line break before the text portion.

At operation 1120, the encoded plurality of dependent segments may bedisplayed on a user interface in accordance with user preferences. In anexample, the dependent segments may be encoded using JavaScript ObjectNotation, extensible markup language, or American Standard Code forInformation Interchange. In an example, encoding the dependent segmentsmay include concatenating the dependent segments of several sentences tocreate a text composition. In an example, the combined sentences may bewritten to a file, communicated via cloud protocols, or displayeddirectly on an output device.

In an example, the encoded segments may be received. The encodedsegments may be parsed to retrieve respective texts and hierarchicalpositions for the encoded segments and the texts may be displayed inaccordance with the positions. In an example, display of the texts inaccordance with the positions may include modification of offsets forportions of the texts and adjustment of line height of portions of thetexts. In an example, the offsets may be from the left in aleft-to-right language and from the right in a right-to-left language.

In an example, display of the texts in accordance with the positions mayinclude appending, modification of indents, and modification of linebreaks without affecting the positional arrangement of the text based onthe linguistic structure.

FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a method 1200 forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The method 1200 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-11.

At operation 1205, data representing one or more constituents of theinput sentence may be received from a constituency parser (e.g., theconstituency parser 1025 as described in FIG. 10, etc.). The datarepresenting one or more constituents may be generated based on anevaluation of the input sentence using the constituency parser. In anexample, the constituency parser may identify constituents of thesentence. In an example, a constituent may be a word or a group of wordsthat function as a single unit within a hierarchical structure.

At operation 1210, data representing relationships between words of theinput sentence may be received from a dependency parser (e.g., thedependency parser 1035 as described in FIG. 10, etc.). The relationshipsmay be based on the sentence structure and may be derived based onevaluation of the input sentence using the dependency parser. In anexample, a dependency may be a one-to-one correspondence so that for anelement in the input sentence there is exactly one node in the structureof the input sentence that corresponds to the element.

At operation 1215, a text model may be built (e.g., by the inputprocessor 1015 as described in FIG. 10, etc.) using the constituents andthe dependency relationships (as shown in FIG. 6A, etc.) In an example,the text model may be further elaborated by linguistic features producedby additional NLP-Services, including by example but not limitation,coreference information, sentiment tracking, named entity lists, topictracking, probabilistic inference evaluation, prosodic contours, andsemantic analysis.

At operation 1220, cascade rules may be applied (e.g., by the cascadegenerator 1055 as described in FIG. 10, etc.) to the text model togenerate a cascaded text data structure. In an example, the cascadedtext data structure comprises text and metadata specifying displayparameters for the text. In an example, the cascade text data structurecomprises a file (e.g., an extensible markup language (XML) file, etc.)organized according to a schema (e.g., an XML schema, etc.). In anexample, the schema comprises a specification for components andarrangement of the components in the file. In an example, the text modelmay be a data structure that describes constituents and dependencies ofwords included in the input sentence. In an example, the text model maybe a data structure including a parse tree, parts of speech, tokens,constituent chart, and dependencies for the text. In an example, thecascade rules comprise formatting rules that create line breaks andindents defined corresponding to constituents and dependencies.

In an example, metadata may be generated that is associated with thecascaded text. In another example, the cascaded text comprises a set offormatted text segments including line breaks and indents for display ona display device. In some examples, the input sentence of text may bereceived from a source specified by a user.

In an example of a paragraph or a collection of sentences, the text maybe processed before it is provided to the constituency parser ordependency parser to split text into a list of sentences. Each sentencemay be processed individually via the constituency parser 1205 and thedependency parser 1210. In an example, the method 1200 is applied toeach sentence in the text. For example, sentences may be displayedsequentially with each being cascaded separately, but in accordance withuser preferences. In some examples, sentences may be grouped intoparagraphs via visual cues other than indentation (e.g., backgroundshading, specialized markers, etc.)

FIG. 13 illustrates an example of a method 1300 forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The method 1300 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-12.

The model of the text may be built (e.g., by the input processor 1015 asdescribed in FIG. 10, etc.) from dependency and constituency dataobtained by parsing the text (e.g., at operation 1305). The cascade datastructure may be generated according to cascade rules applied (e.g., bythe cascade generator 1055 as described in FIG. 10, etc.) to a model ofthe text (e.g., at operation 1310). Sentences of text may be displayedin response to a cascaded text data structure (e.g., at operation 1315).The data structure may specify the horizontal and vertical arrangementof the text for display.

FIG. 14 illustrates an example of a method 1400 for cascading text usinga machine learning classifier for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment. The method 1400 may providefeatures as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-13.

At operation 1405, a text portion is obtained from an interface. Forexample, text may be input by a user via an input device, may beobtained from a local or remote text source (e.g., a file, a publisherdata source, etc.), etc. At operation 1410, the text portion isprocessed through NLP services (e.g., NLP Service 730 as described inFIG. 7, etc.) to obtain linguistic encodings. For example, the text maybe parsed using a variety of parsers that may include, by way of exampleand not limitation, a constituency parser, a dependency parser, acoreference parser, etc. to identify constituents, dependencies,coreferences, etc. At operation 1415, a machine learning (ML) classifieris applied to the linguistic encodings to determine a cascade (e.g., bythe cascade generator 725 as described in FIG. 7, etc.). For example,the machine learning classifier may use the information identified bythe parsers (e.g., portions of the text encoded with the linguisticinformation identified by the parser(s), etc.) to classify portions ofthe text for formatting (e.g., line breaks, indentation, etc.). Atoperation 1420, the cascade is displayed on a user interface inaccordance with user preferences. For example, the cascade may bedisplayed on a screen of a computing device (e.g., standalone computer,mobile device, tablet, etc.) in an application window, web browser, texteditor, etc.

FIG. 15 illustrates an example of a method 1500 for training a machinelearning classifier to cascade text for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment. The method 1500 may providefeatures as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-14.

A machine learning service, such as machine learning service 735illustrated in FIG. 7, is trained with examples of cascades in order tocascade output (e.g., the output 1060 as described in FIG. 10, etc.), asan alternative to using logic and rules defined manually by human effortor via a cascade generator (e.g., the cascade generator 1055 asdiscussed in FIG. 10, etc.).

At operation 1505, a corpus of cascaded text may be obtained. The corpusis separated into a training set and a test set. At operation 1510, thecorpus may be partitioned into subsets. For example, a majority portionof the corpus is designated for training and the remaining portion forvalidation. At operation 1515, a stochastic machine learning method(e.g., Support Vector Machines with Recursive Feature Elimination, etc.)may be applied to generate a set of pattern classifiers for a portion ofthe subsets (e.g., the training set, etc.). A cross-validation procedureis performed to evaluate the set of pattern classifiers by applyingpattern classifiers to uncascaded examples of sentences in the test set.At operation 1520, the set of pattern classifiers may be applied tonon-cascaded versions of the corpus of cascaded text in the remainingportion of the subsets to generate a new set of cascaded texts. Validityof the cascades generated by the classifier set may be assessed withrespect to known cascades. At operation 1525, validity of the new set ofcascaded texts may be assessed against known cascades for a test setaccording to accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. For example, thecorpus of cascaded text marked with constituents and dependencies servesas the training set to produce classifier functions that may be used togenerate the proper cascade for a particular novel sentence (not in thetraining set), based on its linguistic attributes. By way of example andnot limitation, classifications may be performed using linear kernelSupport Vector Machines with Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE;Guyon et al., 2002). The SVM classification algorithm (Vapnik, 1995,1999) has been used in a wide range of applications and produces betteraccuracy than other methods (e.g., Asri et al., 2016; Huang et al.,2002; Black et al., 2015). SVM partitions the data into classes (e.g.,cascade patterns) by identifying the optimal separation point(hyperplane) between two classes in a high dimensional feature space,such that the margin width around the hyperplane is maximized andmisclassification errors are minimized. The closest cases to thehyperplane are called support vectors, and these serve as criticalidentifiers for distinguishing between classes. A cross-validation (CV)approach is utilized to assess the generalizability of theclassification model (e.g., Arlot & Celisse, 2010; James, Witten,Hastie, and Tibshirani, 2013). This involves partitioning the data intosubsets, or folds, (10 is used following convention, which is referredto as 10-fold CV), with 9 used for classifier training and the held-outset used to validate the resultant classifiers.

Cross-validation is performed using a multi-level method to validategeneralizability of our classifiers across i) cases (sentences); ii)features (e.g., syntactic categories or dependencies), iii) and tuningparameters (optimization). This method protects against overfitting andavoids biased estimates of classification accuracy that may derive fromusing the same CV subsets to evaluate more than one aspect of theclassifier simultaneously. Outcomes of each CV procedure are assessedusing measures of specificity=TN/(TN+FP), sensitivity=TP/(TP+FN), andaccuracy=(sensitivity+specificity)/2, where TN is the number of truenegatives, FP is the number of false positives, TP is the number of truepositives, FN is it the number of false negatives.

It may be understood that a variety of machine learning techniques maybe used to train the classifiers to recognize cue insertion points andcue formatting using labeled or unlabeled data. Machine learningtechniques that are consistent with observing and learning from thelabeled data or from inherent coding based on positional structure ofthe training cascade corpus may be used to facilitate training of theclassifiers. Thus, SVM is used as an example to further inform thetraining process, but it will be understood that alternative machinelearning techniques with similar functionality may be used.

The process may be applied with a training set generated via alternativemeans and is not dependent on the cascade generator. For example, handcoded training data, etc. may be used to train ML models to generatecascaded text.

In an example, The NLP services referred to herein may use a pre-trainedAI model (e.g., AMAZON® Comprehend or Stanford Parser(https://nlp.stanford.edu/software/lex-parser.shtml), GOOGLE® NaturalLanguage, or MICROSOFT® Text Analytics, AllenNLP, Stanza, etc.) that mayuse an RNN for text analysis. Given larger amounts of data, the RNN isable to learn a mapping from free text input to create output such aspredicted entities, key phrases, parts of speech, constituent charts, ordependencies etc. that may be present in the free text. In an example,additional machine learning models may be trained usingkey-phrase-format-rule, part-of-speech-format-rule, entity-format-rulepairs, constituency data, dependency data, etc. as training data tolearn to identify various parts of speech, key phrases, entities,constituencies, dependencies, etc. that may then be used in future parseoperations. In another example, user preference and parts of speech, keyphrase, entity pairs, constituencies, dependencies, etc. may be used totrain a machine learning model to identify user preferences based onvarious parts of speech, key phrases, and entities. The various machinelearning models may provide output based on a statistical likelihoodthat a given input is related to a selected output. For example arecurrent neural network including various threshold layers may be usedto generate the models to filter outputs to increase the accuracy ofoutput selection.

The cascaded output may be presented to the user in a variety ofmediums. For example, a side-by-side display of the original text andthe cascaded text may be displayed on a display device, the originaltext may be replaced or modified with the cascade output, etc.

In an example, machine learning may be used to evaluate a corpus ofcascaded text to learn cascade pattern classifiers forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting. Pattern classifiersspecify the actual visual cues (e.g., cascading, indentation, lingbreaks, color, etc.) that signal linguistic attributes contained in thetext segment, according to the style of the cascade rules. In anexample, the classifiers may evaluate the words, parts of speech,constituent groups or dependency labels of a text segment and produce aformatting structure consistent with the visual cues present in thecascade training set. In an example, the classifiers may evaluate theshape and display properties of the cascades in the training setdirectly and produce a formatting structure consistent with the visualcues present in the training set.

FIG. 16 illustrates an example of text transformation 1600 fordisplaying sentences of text in a cascaded format forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment, in accordance with an embodiment. The text transformation1600 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and7-15. A browser window 1605 may include a plug-in 1610, that isconnected to the system 1605, and a cascade mode button 1615 when thecascade mode is off, standard text 1620 may be displayed when a userviews text on a website. When the cascade mode is on, the text may beformatted and displayed in cascade format 1625.

FIG. 17 illustrates an example 1700 of a hypertext markup language(HTML) code tagged for cascaded text for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment. The example 1700 mayprovide features as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-16. Sourcetext 1705 may be processed by the NLP service 730 as described in FIG. 7to produce a text model 1050 (e.g., part-of-speech, key phrases,constituency data, dependency data, etc.). While the example shows thesource text 1705 as HTML code, the text may be in ASCII format, XMLformat, or a variety of other machine-readable formats. The cascadegenerator 725 as described in FIG. 7 may render tagged output text 1715that indicates line breaks (e.g., as </br> tags in HTML code, etc.) andindentation (e.g., using the text-indent: tag in HTML, etc.) insertedinto the text based on the text model 1050.

The cascade generator 725 may make several calls to the NLP service 730for multiple functions, such as described herein with respect toconstituents and dependencies, or other linguistic data. In oneembodiment, each of these is a separate call/function which, whencombined, provide the set of tags to be used for to generate cascadedtext.

OTHER EMBODIMENTS

Returning to the description of FIG. 7, according to one exampleembodiment, key phrases, constituents, dependencies, etc. may bedetermined in a probabilistic manner by the NLP service 730 usingcomputational linguistics. The cascading text generated by the cascadegenerator 725 may improve reading comprehension. According to an exampleembodiment, the constituents that describe the who, when, where, andwhat information in a sentence, are separated via line breaks and/orindentation to achieve a cascaded text format. The cascade generator 725uses the constituents, which are linked to dependencies, etc. todetermine who, when, where, and what of a sentence. For example,indentations inserted by the cascade generator 725 is based on sentenceconstituency hierarchy informed by the NLP service 730.

Continuous improvement of cascade formatting may be achieved byemploying artificial intelligence including machine learning techniquesvia the machine learning service 735. The inputs/outputs to and from themachine learning service 735 may be processed actively and passively.For example, the machine learning service 735 may operate under anactive machine learning approach in an example where two users may bereading the same material with a slightly different cascade formatbetween person A and B. The reading comprehension by the users of thematerial may be tracked via assessments and the machine learning service735 may generate outputs that may be used by the cascade generator 725to modify the display properties over time. This approach allows for thesystem 705 to improve with scale and usage. The machine learning service735 may operate in a passive mode to measure attributes like readingbehavior without an explicit assessment. For example, the analyticsservice 740 may collect data that (singly and when combined) may be usedto generate output indicative of reader comprehension without the usertaking an assessment. Some of the data that may be evaluated to refinecascade formatting may be, by way of example and not limitation, timespent reading a given portion of text (e.g., less time spent reading mayindicate higher comprehension, etc.), eye tracking using cameras (e.g.,embedded cameras, external, etc.) that evaluate efficiency of eyemovement across different cascade formats of the same content to providemachine learning input, and user modification to evaluate the degree ofpersonal modification for user preferences (e.g., more spacing, sentencefragment length, font, color enhancement of key phrases orpart-of-speech, constituents, dependents, etc.).

The analytics service 740 may log and store user analytics includingmeasures of reading comprehension, user preferences as reflected inmodifications to the system (e.g., scrolling speed, spacing, fragmentlength, dark mode, key phrase highlighting, etc.), etc. Themodifications may be evaluated for various cascade formats to determinehow various modifications translate into comprehension performance andmay be fed into the machine learning service 735 as input to improvedefault display formats. The user profile service 745 may store userprofile data including an anonymized identifier for privacy and privacycompliance (e.g., HIPPA compliance, etc.), and may track performancemetrics and progress. For example, modifications to display parametersthat are continually made by the user may be learned by the machinelearning service 735 based on input from the analytics service 740 andmay be used to generate user-specific display properties. The accesscontrol service 750 may provide access to stored content includingmetrics on frequency, time of use, and text attributes (e.g., fiction,non-fiction, author, research, poetry, etc.). According to anotherpersonalization, a user may personalize display parameters such as textcolor, font, font size, and other display parameters.

In an example, a reading score may be developed for a user. A scoringmatrix may be created that may be based on a student's age and gradethat may be a result of their reading of specified content and thentheir associated comprehension (e.g., a Reading Comprehension Score(RCS), etc.). The RCS approach is analogous to grade point average (GPA)in establishing a relative scoring metric amongst similar cohorts. Themetric may be based on evaluation of consumption of text by the userusing cascade formatting. For example, an assessment may be tracked overtime—actively or passively—to determine speed and efficiency of thecomprehension of the text by the user. A score may be calculated for theuser that increases with speed of comprehension. Inputs received beforeperforming a reading assessment may be used to generate a baselinequotient for the user.

A cognitive training library may be developed using cascade formatting.For example, various published content items such as books, magazinesand papers may be translated using the cascading format and users may beallowed to access the library for purposes of training their brains toincrease comprehension and retention. Tests and quizzes may be used toassess performance of comprehension of the user to provide the user withtangible evidence of cognitive improvement.

Cascade formatting may be applied to process a variety of languages. AnNLP Service(s) may be used to provide linguistic features of the otherlanguage text and rules may be created and applied to the NLP output(e.g., Spanish text, etc.) to cascade foreign language text accordingly.In addition to language adaptations, adaptations may be made based onsyntax of other languages and thus the cascaded text for a differentlanguage may cascade in a different format using different formattingrules to account for language-specific syntactic variations.Constituency and dependency NLP services are available in multiplelanguages. Because the cascade rules are based on a universal dependencyset, there is a high likelihood that the cascade rules will transfer toother languages, although the output may look different (e.g., somelanguages read right to left instead of left to right, top to bottom,etc.) Some will have different length words that may require differenttypes of line breaks (e.g., agglutinative languages add grammar byappending morphemes, resulting in very long words). etc. Displayproperties are applied that are adapted to the language, but the processof Constituent Cuing as discussed herein remains constant.

In an example, spoken words may be combined with visual display of thecascade formatted text. Sound may be integrated such that as one isreading cascading text there is also a soundtrack of reading the sametext, played at a controllable speed to match the individual reader'sspeed. For example, text-to-speech may be used to provide theaudio/speech output in real time and reading pace and comprehension maybe evaluated and speed of the text-to-speech output may be altered(e.g., sped up, slowed down, paused, resumed, etc.) to keep the audiosynchronized with the reading of the user. The cascade may beaccompanied by speech in such a way that the reader may visuallyperceive the prosodic cues associated with line breaks. This didactivesystem may be used to tutor the user so that his/her own oral readingmimics this prosody. This will in turn support increased knowledge ofsyntactic structures.

FIG. 18 illustrates an example 1800 of generating cascaded text from acaptured image for linguistically-driven automated text formatting,according to an embodiment. The example 1800 may provide features asdescribed in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-17. An imaging device 1805 maycapture an image including text 1810. The image may be processed (e.g.,via optical character recognition, etc.) to extract the text 1810 fromthe image. The text 1810 may be evaluated via the system 1000 toidentify a text model (e.g., based on constituencies, dependencies,etc.) in the text. Cascade formatting rules may be applied to the text1810 based on linguistic attributes assigned via system 1000. The text1810 may be converted via cascade formatting rules to cascaded outputtext and displayed for consumption by a user.

FIG. 19 illustrates an example of a method 1900 for generating cascadedtext from a captured image for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment. The method 1900 may providefeatures as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-18. At operation1905, an image of text may be captured within a field of view of animaging device. At operation 1910, the text may be recognized in theimage to generate a machine-readable text string. At operation 1915, themachine-readable text string may be processed with NLP Services toidentify linguistic attributes (e.g., part-of-speech, lemma,constituency data, dependency data, coreference data, sentimentanalysis, topic tracking, probabilistic inference, and prosodicstructure, etc.) to generate a text model (e.g., as shown in element1050 of FIG. 10, etc.). At operation 1920, a text cascade may begenerated that includes breaks and indentations based on rules appliedusing the text model. In an example, the text string may containsentences of text, and the breaks and indentations may be applied to thesentence. In an example, the text string may include multiple sentences,grouped into paragraphs via visual cuing (e.g., background color,explicit markers, etc.).

FIG. 20 illustrates an example 2000 of converting text from a firstdisplay format to a second display format in an eyewear device usingnatural language processing for linguistically-driven automated textformatting, according to an embodiment. The example 2000 may providefeatures as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-19. A user 2005 maybe wearing smart glasses that include an imaging device 2010. Theimaging device 2010 may capture an image including text 2015. The imagemay be processed (e.g., via optical character recognition, etc.) toextract the text 2015 from the image. The text 2015 may be evaluated viathe system 705 to identify linguistic attributes (e.g., part-of-speech,key phrases, constituency data, dependency data, etc.) in the text(e.g., to form a model 1050 as described in FIG. 10, etc.). Cascadeformatting rules may be applied to the text 2015 using the linguisticattributes identified (e.g., such as the model 1050 as described in FIG.10, etc.) by the cloud-based delivery system 705. The text 2015 may beconverted to cascaded output text 2020 and displayed on a display deviceof the smart glasses that include an imaging device 2010 for consumptionby a user.

FIG. 21 illustrates an example of a method 2100 for converting text froma first display format to a second display format in an eyewear devicefor linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The method 2100 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-20. At operation 2105, an image of text may becaptured within a field of view of an imaging component of an eyeweardevice or from another source of text input. In an example, the eyeweardevice may have memory in which the text is stored or downloaded as afile, may have a wireless capacity whereby the text is wirelesslyacquired and then converted, etc. At operation 2110, the text may berecognized in the image to generate a machine-readable text string. Atoperation 2115, the machine-readable text string may be processed withNLP Services 1020 to identify linguistic attributes (e.g.,part-of-speech, lemma, constituency data, dependency data, coreferencedata, sentiment analysis, topic tracking, probabilistic inference, andprosodic structure, etc.) and generate a text model (e.g., the model1050 as described in FIG. 10, etc.). At operation 2120, a text cascademay be generated that includes breaks and indentations based on rulesapplied using the text model 1050. In an example, the text string maycontain sentences of text, and the breaks and indentations may beapplied to the sentence. In an example, the text string may includemultiple sentences, grouped into paragraphs via visual cuing (e.g.,background color, explicit markers, etc.). At operation 2125, the textcascade may be displayed to a user via a display component of theeyewear device.

FIG. 22 illustrates an example 2200 of generating cascaded text forlinguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The example 2200 may provide features as described in FIGS.1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-21. A text authoring tool 2205 may receive textinput 2210 from a user (e.g., via a keyboard, voice command, etc.). Asthe text input 2210 is received, it is processed by the system 705 (viaonline connection, locally available components, etc.) to identifylinguistic attributes (e.g., part-of-speech, constituency data,dependency data, etc.) in the text input 2210. In an example, the system705 (or components of the system 705) may be executing on a remotecomputing platform or may be executing on a device on which the textauthoring tool 2205 is executing. Cascade formatting rules may beapplied to the input text 2210 using the linguistic attributesidentified in the input text 2210. The displayed output text 2215 may bedisplayed as cascaded output text as the user enters the text to providethe user with real-time cascade formatting as text is entered.

FIG. 23 illustrates an example of an architecture 2300 for user andpublisher preference management of cascaded text using natural languageprocessing based on feedback input for linguistically-driven automatedtext formatting, according to an embodiment. The architecture 2300 mayprovide features as described in FIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-19. Theuser interface 2305 and the plug-in 2310 may connect to the system 705as described in FIG. 7. The system 705 may include a user registry 2310that may allow users and publishers to register to publish and consumetext via the system 705. The user registry may maintain profiles forusers and publishers that includes display preferences to be appliedwhen viewing cascaded text. The user preferences do not change theformation of the cascaded text, but may provide user or publisherdefined display modifications such as text color, font size, linespacing, etc. A cascade mode button 2315 may be provided that allows auser to turn editing mode on or off. Text may be displayed in a cascadeformat and when the cascade editing mode is enabled, changes to thecascade display properties may be tracked and may be evaluated togenerate personalized cascade display properties for the user. Trackedchanges may be used as feedback information stored in a profile that maybe used to learn user preferences over time. The feedback may also bedirect input provided by a user or publisher indicating preferences forcontent display properties.

In an example, a publisher may register via the user registry 2310 andmay provide published content for consumption by users of the system705. Publisher data 2320 may include content including books, magazines,manuals, exams, etc. that may be input into the system 705. Linguisticattributes (e.g., part-of-speech, constituency data, dependency data,co-reference linking, etc.) may be identified for each sentence in thepublisher data 2320 by an NLP Service(s), which will classify words orcombinations of words as a named entities, part-of speech, having aconstituency relationship, having a dependency relationship, coreferenceand topic links, etc. The publisher data 2320 including the linguisticanalysis may be received by the system 705.

The identified linguistic attributes of the publisher data 2320 may beevaluated against a set of cascade formatting rules that may includerules for inserting line breaks, indentation, and other formattingelements. The cascade formatting rules may be triggered by a class orpart-of-speech, key phrase, type of constituent or dependency, etc. asidentified in text. The cascaded publisher data may be provided back tothe publisher to be included in the publisher data 2320 and may beconsumed by a user via the user interface 2305.

Additional formatting may be used to provide further cuing for a user.For example, constituent structure highlighting may be provided toreduce the cognitive load of reading. This allows the systems andmethods discussed herein to provide a system that simplifies the readingtask. A variety of modifications including modifying text with color,underline, highlight, etc. may be applied to aid in reducing thecognitive load on the user.

FIG. 24 illustrates an example of a method 2400 for personalization ofcascaded text using natural language processing based on feedback inputfor linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according to anembodiment. The method 2400 may provide features as described in FIGS. 1to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-23. The systems and methods discussed herein may beused to develop a personalized algorithm that is unique to anindividual. People have different ways of processing textual informationand a personal reading algorithm (PRA) may be created that is optimizedfor each person. Text may be displayed in a cascade format and when thecascade editing mode is enabled, changes to the display properties ofthe cascade formatted output may be tracked and may be analyzed torecognize a medical condition, cognitive function, learning disability,and/or generate personalized cascade format rules for the user. Bytweaking various attributes and assessing comprehension and ease ofreading, a personalized setting may be developed that is used tocustomize display properties. This may be created by parameter changesof the display properties made by the user to fit their readingpreferences. User adjustments to display properties that may be trackedmay include modification of the amount of indentation, highlighting orcoloring of key constituents, scrolling speed, etc. While the cascadelogic remains based on the linguistic information, the profile of a usermay be used to highlight, italicize, colorize, increase spacing, addline returns, and the like in the display properties of the cascadedtext.

Like variations between two eyeglass prescriptions, different eyesprocess information slightly differently which may result in differentdisplay properties for two users. Cognitive diversity (e.g., thedifferent ways people confront and process text) may also be addressedby optimizing display properties person-to-person or between groupssharing similar cognitive profiles e.g. ADHD, dyslexia, autism, etc.

For example, reading profiles may be created (standalone or incombination) that modify the presentation parameters based on readerattributes. Contextual profiles may be informed by user input or throughcomputer-automated evaluation such as, for specific medical andcognitive conditions (e.g., dyslexia, attention deficit andhyperactivity disorder (ADHD), attention deficit disorder (ADD), etc.),autism, native languages (e.g., a native Chinese speaker may benefitfrom a different format than a native Spanish speaker, etc.), the natureof content being read (e.g., fiction, non-fiction, news, poetry, etc.),or screen modes (e.g., phone, tablet, laptop, monitor, AR/VR device,etc.). Display property optimization of cascade output may also be usedin a diagnostic and therapeutic manner to address injuries anddisabilities. An important symptom in people suffering from concussionsor traumatic brain injuries (TBI) is a change in eye movement andtracking. Athletes may be seen on the sidelines being asked to track afinger being moved horizontally in front of them as one example. Readingis taxing on a concussed brain. People suffering from TBI need to takefrequent breaks to let their brain rest and heal. In the military andmany sports, participants are required to do baseline cognitive testingin order to assess future injuries. In an example, the systems andtechniques discussed herein may be used in conjunction with augmentedreality headsets/glasses to measure comprehension level baselines usingcascaded text and tuned display properties for the participant. Thisbaseline may include eye tracking information in addition to acomprehension assessment and user-reported comfort/strain.

Once that baseline is established, eye tracking and comprehension may bemeasured using the cascade and the degree to which changes in displayproperties from baseline settings offer relief. For example, if abaseline measure says the participant reads with a three characterindentation and scores a comprehension level of X, then it may bedetermined how they do with those same measures after a TBI and how theymay improve with a modified display with enhanced indentation, colors,etc. The display property changes necessary to support the injuredparticipant may inform their diagnosis and treatment plan. In anexample, a user may set their own personal parameters and output formats(e.g., length, spacing, highlighting, indentation, line returns, etc.),font, color, size, background color.

At operation 2405, content (e.g., text, images, etc.) may be obtainedfrom a cloud-connected source that includes text sentences. At operation2410, a registry of individuals and personalized text format parametersmay be maintained for the individuals. In an example, the textformatting parameters may include rules to generate a cascaded textdisplay format personalized for an individual. At operation 2415,display control instructions may be generated that enable display of thecascade with user-specified attributes based on the personalized textformat parameters for an individual. For example, a sentence of text maybe received from a publishing source associated with an individual fromthe registry and display control instructions may be generated tocontrol display of the sentence on a client device. At operation 2420,the cascade may be displayed by applying the user-specified attributesto modify the display properties of the cascade output on a displaydevice. The display control instructions may use the personalized textformat parameters for the individual and the instructions may enable thedisplay of the sentence in a cascaded format personalized for theindividual. In an example, the cloud-connected source may be a browserapplication, and the browser application may supply the sentence of textto the text processing engine.

FIG. 25 illustrates an example 2500 of dual display of cascaded textbased on feedback input (e.g., user modification of the displayed text,etc.) for linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according toan embodiment. The example 2500 may provide features as described inFIGS. 1 to 5, 6A, 6B, and 7-24. Text may be received via a userinterface 2505. The text 2510 may be processed by the system 705 toidentify parse structure (e.g., part-of-speech, constituency data,dependency data, etc.). The text 2510 (e.g., non-cascaded, originallanguage, cascaded, etc.) or source text may be displayed in a firstwindow of the user interface 2505. While block text is used as anexample, the raw text may have html-enhancements, including titles,headings, figure captions, etc. Modified text 2515 may be displayed in asecond window of the user interface 2505. The modified text 2515 may betext that has been cascade formatted, translated, formatted in adifferent cascade format that may include user preferences, etc. In anexample, the modified text 2515 may be presented in a cascade formatusing line breaks and indentations from cascade formatting rules appliedusing the identified linguistic attributes. The modified text 2515 maybe presented with the part-of-speech, constituency data, dependencydata, etc. highlighted (e.g., underlined, bolded, colored, shaded, etc.)so that a user is able to identify the structure of the text 2510.

Accordingly, a parallel display of the source text and the cascadeformatted text may be presented via two screens or split screen inparallel presentation. For example, original source text may bedisplayed on one screen and the cascade text is displayed in parallel ona second screen and may be synced so when a user scrolls on eitherdisplay they stay synchronized. This may be used for educationalpurposes to highlight syntax, key phrases, part-of-speech, constituencydata, dependency data, etc. or to present an “enhanced comprehensionview” that is like a text X-RAY displaying the underlying structure ofthe text. For example, constituents, coreference information and keyphrases may be bolded or not bolded, verbs may be colored or bolded,etc. to highlight underlying linguistic properties.

FIG. 26 illustrates an example of a system 2600 for translation of inputtext in a first language 2610 to a cascaded output in a second language2615 for linguistically-driven automated text formatting, according toan embodiment. A translation engine 2620 may receive the input in thefirst language 2610 and may translate the input into the secondlanguage. The translation engine may be executing locally on the deviceused to view a user interface 2605 that is displaying the input and thecascaded output in the second language 2615, remotely executing from aweb service, cloud-based service, remote server, etc. The translationengine 2620 may include translation logic that, when executed on inputtext, converts the text from the input language to a second language.

The output from the translation engine 2620 may be processed by thecloud-based system 705 to produce the cascaded output in the secondlanguage 2615 as described above. For example, a cascade formattedpassage may be displayed in one window of the screen while a translationof the passage in another language may be presented in cascaded formatin a second window of the screen. In another example, block text may bedisplayed one side and cascade formatted text on the other side of adual display. In yet another example, there is provided split screenscrolling in block and cascade and/or languages may be displayed ondifferent sides of the screen or on different displays of a dual displayconfiguration. Dual screens may allow a user to refer to the other viewto assist in comprehension of difficult passages.

FIG. 27 illustrates an example of a method 2700 linguistically-drivenautomated text formatting, according to an embodiment. The method 2700may provide features as described in FIGS. 1-5, 6A, 6B, and 7-26.

At operation 2705, text input may be received from an input device. Atoperation 2710, the input text may be formatted using cues tocommunicate linguistic relationships identified from constituency anddependency parsing operations of a natural language processing service.

At operation 2715, cascade rules may be applied to prioritize placementof constituents of the text input as a continuous unit of displayoutput. The cascade rules may determine horizontal displacement of aconstituent of the constituents based on information output from anautomated dependency parser and may group the constituent with otherconstituents based on horizontal positioning to highlight dependencyrelationships. An unindent may indicate completion of a constituencygroup. In an example, the cascade rules may further identify corearguments and non-core dependents of the input text using rules thatlink dependencies to constituents. These rules may indent the corearguments and the non-core dependents under a head of a linguisticphrase of the input text.

At operation 2720, output may be generated that includes indents andline feeds based on application of the cascade rules. In an example, theoutput may be augmented with additional linguistic feature cues providedby the natural language processing service that includes coreferenceinformation, sentiment analysis, named-entity recognition, semantic rolelabeling, textual entailment, topic tracking, or prosodic analysis.

At operation 2725, the output may be displayed on the display of anoutput device. In an example, anonymized usage data or user-specifiedpreferences may be received and a custom display profile may begenerated that includes output display properties based on theanonymized usage data or the user-specified preferences. In an example,the output may be adjusted using the output display properties of thecustom display profile. The display properties may modify displayfeatures of the output without modification of a shape of the output. Inan example, the output may be generated for display on a phone, atablet, a laptop, a monitor, a virtual reality device, or an augmentedreality device. In an example, the output may be generated for displayin a dual-screen format that displays a side-by-side text format, aformat-while-edit format, or a cascade-and-translate format.

FIG. 28 illustrates a block diagram of an example machine 2800 uponwhich any one or more of the techniques (e.g., methodologies) discussedherein may perform. In alternative embodiments, the machine 2800 mayoperate as a standalone device or may be connected (e.g., networked) toother machines. In a networked deployment, the machine 2800 may operatein the capacity of a server machine, a client machine, or both inserver-client network environments. In an example, the machine 2800 mayact as a peer machine in peer-to-peer (P2P) (or other distributed)network environment. The machine 2800 may be a personal computer (PC), atablet PC, a set-top box (STB), a personal digital assistant (PDA), amobile telephone, a web appliance, a network router, switch or bridge,or any machine capable of executing instructions (sequential orotherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine. Further,while only a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shallalso be taken to include any collection of machines that individually orjointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform anyone or more of the methodologies discussed herein, such as cloudcomputing, software as a service (SaaS), other computer clusterconfigurations.

Examples, as described herein, may include, or may operate by, logic ora number of components, or mechanisms. Circuit sets are a collection ofcircuits implemented in tangible entities that include hardware (e.g.,simple circuits, gates, logic, etc.). Circuit set membership may beflexible over time and underlying hardware variability. Circuit setsinclude members that may, alone or in combination, perform specifiedoperations when operating. In an example, hardware of the circuit setmay be immutably designed to carry out a specific operation (e.g.,hardwired). In an example, the hardware of the circuit set may includevariably connected physical components (e.g., execution units,transistors, simple circuits, etc.) including a computer readable mediumphysically modified (e.g., magnetically, electrically, moveableplacement of invariant massed particles, etc.) to encode instructions ofthe specific operation. In connecting the physical components, theunderlying electrical properties of a hardware constituent are changed,for example, from an insulator to a conductor or vice versa. Theinstructions enable embedded hardware (e.g., the execution units or aloading mechanism) to create members of the circuit set in hardware viathe variable connections to carry out portions of the specific operationwhen in operation. Accordingly, the computer readable medium iscommunicatively coupled to the other components of the circuit setmember when the device is operating. In an example, any of the physicalcomponents may be used in more than one member of more than one circuitset. For example, under operation, execution units may be used in afirst circuit of a first circuit set at one point in time and reused bya second circuit in the first circuit set, or by a third circuit in asecond circuit set at a different time.

Machine (e.g., computer system) 2800 may include a hardware processor2802 (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit(GPU), a hardware processor core, or any combination thereof), a mainmemory 2804 and a static memory 2806, some or all of which maycommunicate with each other via an interlink (e.g., bus) 2808. Themachine 2800 may further include a display unit 2810, an alphanumericinput device 2812 (e.g., a keyboard), and a user interface (UI)navigation device 2814 (e.g., a mouse). In an example, the display unit2810, input device 2812 and UI navigation device 2814 may be a touchscreen display. The machine 2800 may additionally include a storagedevice (e.g., drive unit) 2816, a signal generation device 2818 (e.g., aspeaker), a network interface device 2820, and one or more sensors 2821,such as a global positioning system (GPS) sensor, compass,accelerometer, or other sensors. The machine 2800 may include an outputcontroller 2828, such as a serial (e.g., universal serial bus (USB),parallel, or other wired or wireless (e.g., infrared (IR), near fieldcommunication (NFC), etc.) connection to communicate or control one ormore peripheral devices (e.g., a printer, card reader, etc.).

The storage device 2816 may include a machine readable medium 2822 onwhich is stored one or more sets of data structures or instructions 2824(e.g., software) embodying or utilized by any one or more of thetechniques or functions described herein. The instructions 2824 may alsoreside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory 2804,within static memory 2806, or within the hardware processor 2802 duringexecution thereof by the machine 2800. In an example, one or anycombination of the hardware processor 2802, the main memory 2804, thestatic memory 2806, or the storage device 2816 may constitute machinereadable media.

While the machine readable medium 2822 is illustrated as a singlemedium, the term “machine readable medium” may include a single mediumor multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/orassociated caches and servers) configured to store the one or moreinstructions 2824.

The term “machine readable medium” may include any medium that iscapable of storing, encoding, or carrying instructions for execution bythe machine 2800 and that cause the machine 2800 to perform any one ormore of the techniques of the present disclosure, or that is capable ofstoring, encoding or carrying data structures used by or associated withsuch instructions. Non-limiting machine-readable medium examples mayinclude solid-state memories, and optical and magnetic media. In anexample, machine readable media may exclude transitory propagatingsignals (e.g., non-transitory machine-readable storage media). Specificexamples of non-transitory machine-readable storage media may include:non-volatile memory, such as semiconductor memory devices (e.g.,Electrically Programmable Read-Only Memory (EPROM), ElectricallyErasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM)) and flash memorydevices; magnetic disks, such as internal hard disks and removabledisks; magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks.

The instructions 2824 may further be transmitted or received over acommunications network 2826 using a transmission medium via the networkinterface device 2820 utilizing any one of a number of transferprotocols (e.g., frame relay, internet protocol (IP), transmissioncontrol protocol (TCP), user datagram protocol (UDP), hypertext transferprotocol (HTTP), etc.). Example communication networks may include alocal area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), a packet datanetwork (e.g., the Internet), mobile telephone networks (e.g., cellularnetworks), Plain Old Telephone (POTS) networks, and wireless datanetworks (e.g., Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)802.11 family of standards known as Wi-Fi®, LoRa®/LoRaWAN® LPWANstandards, etc.), IEEE 802.15.4 family of standards, peer-to-peer (P2P)networks, 3^(rd) Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) standards for 4Gand 5G wireless communication including: 3GPP Long-Term evolution (LTE)family of standards, 3GPP LTE Advanced family of standards, 3GPP LTEAdvanced Pro family of standards, 3GPP New Radio (NR) family ofstandards, among others. In an example, the network interface device2820 may include one or more physical jacks (e.g., Ethernet, coaxial, orphone jacks) or one or more antennas to connect to the communicationsnetwork 2826. In an example, the network interface device 2820 mayinclude a plurality of antennas to wirelessly communicate using at leastone of single-input multiple-output (SIMO), multiple-inputmultiple-output (MIMO), or multiple-input single-output (MISO)techniques. The term “transmission medium” shall be taken to include anyintangible medium that is capable of storing, encoding or carryinginstructions for execution by the machine 2800, and includes digital oranalog communications signals or other intangible medium to facilitatecommunication of such software.

ADDITIONAL NOTES

The above detailed description includes references to the accompanyingdrawings, which form a part of the detailed description. The drawingsshow, by way of illustration, specific embodiments that may bepracticed. These embodiments are also referred to herein as “examples.”Such examples may include elements in addition to those shown ordescribed. However, the present inventors also contemplate examples inwhich only those elements shown or described are provided. Moreover, thepresent inventors also contemplate examples using any combination orpermutation of those elements shown or described (or one or more aspectsthereof), either with respect to a particular example (or one or moreaspects thereof), or with respect to other examples (or one or moreaspects thereof) shown or described herein.

All publications, patents, and patent documents referred to in thisdocument are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety, asthough individually incorporated by reference. In the event ofinconsistent usages between this document and those documents soincorporated by reference, the usage in the incorporated reference(s)should be considered supplementary to that of this document; forirreconcilable inconsistencies, the usage in this document controls.

In this document, the terms “a” or “an” are used, as is common in patentdocuments, to include one or more than one, independent of any otherinstances or usages of “at least one” or “one or more.” In thisdocument, the term “or” is used to refer to a nonexclusive or, such that“A or B” includes “A but not B,” “B but not A,” and “A and B,” unlessotherwise indicated. In the appended claims, the terms “including” and“in which” are used as the plain-English equivalents of the respectiveterms “comprising” and “wherein.” Also, in the following claims, theterms “including” and “comprising” are open-ended, that is, a system,device, article, or process that includes elements in addition to thoselisted after such a term in a claim are still deemed to fall within thescope of that claim. Moreover, in the following claims, the terms“first,” “second,” and “third,” etc. are used merely as labels, and arenot intended to impose numerical requirements on their objects.

The above description is intended to be illustrative, and notrestrictive. For example, the above-described examples (or one or moreaspects thereof) may be used in combination with each other. Otherembodiments may be used, such as by one of ordinary skill in the artupon reviewing the above description. The Abstract is to allow thereader to quickly ascertain the nature of the technical disclosure andis submitted with the understanding that it will not be used tointerpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. Also, in theabove Detailed Description, various features may be grouped together tostreamline the disclosure. This should not be interpreted as intendingthat an unclaimed disclosed feature is essential to any claim. Rather,inventive subject matter may lie in less than all features of aparticular disclosed embodiment. Thus, the following claims are herebyincorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing onits own as a separate embodiment. The scope of the embodiments should bedetermined with reference to the appended claims, along with the fullscope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled.

1-20. (canceled)
 21. A system for producing a cascaded arrangement oftext using a machine learning model, comprising: at least one processor;and memory including instructions that, when executed by the at leastone processor, cause the at least one processor to perform operationsto: obtain text that includes respective words; use a trained machinelearning model to process the text, the machine learning model trainedto receive the text as input to the model and generate cascade data asoutput from the model, wherein to process the text includes operationsto: determine a vertical arrangement of the respective words in thetext, wherein the vertical arrangement positions the respective wordsvertically among separate lines or continuous units based onconstituency; determine a horizontal arrangement of the respective wordsin the text, wherein the horizontal arrangement positions groups of oneor more of the respective words among the separate lines or continuousunits based on dependency; identify formatting applicable to the text toimplement the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement; andgenerate the cascade data with the formatting applicable to the text;and provide the text and the cascade data for output, the cascade dataspecifying the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement forthe output of the respective words in the text.
 22. The system of claim21, wherein the respective words provide a plurality of constituents,and wherein the vertical arrangement of the respective words groups eachconstituent of the plurality of constituents into the separate lines orcontinuous units.
 23. The system of claim 21, wherein the cascade dataspecifies the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement usingline breaks for use in the output of the vertical arrangement andindentation for use in the output of the horizontal arrangement.
 24. Thesystem of claim 21, wherein the machine learning model is furthertrained to receive constituency information and dependency informationas input, wherein the constituency information identifies constituentsamong the respective words and wherein the dependency informationidentifies dependencies among the respective words, wherein the machinelearning model uses the constituency information and the dependencyinformation to determine the horizontal arrangement, and wherein thehorizontal arrangement provides a same horizontal displacement for theconstituents that have a dependency relationship to a same head or adependency relationship on each other.
 25. The system of claim 24,wherein the constituency information and the dependency information isobtained from the text using a natural language processing service. 26.The system of claim 21, wherein training of the machine learning modelincludes validating at least one output produced by the machine learningmodel.
 27. The system of claim 21, wherein the machine learning model istrained from a plurality of text examples and a plurality of cascadeexamples corresponding to the plurality of text examples.
 28. The systemof claim 27, wherein the machine learning model is trained with astochastic machine learning method.
 29. The system of claim 21, whereinthe cascade data provides formatting characteristics for display of thecascaded arrangement of the text.
 30. The system of claim 29, whereinthe display of the cascaded arrangement of the text is enhanced with oneor more of: highlighting, color-coding, underlining, or accompanyingaudio information.
 31. At least one non-transitory machine-readablemedium including instructions for generating display of text thatincludes linguistic cues from an input text, when executed by at leastone processor, cause the at least one processor to perform operationsto: obtain text that includes respective words; use a trained machinelearning model to process the text, the machine learning model trainedto receive the text as input to the model and generate cascade data asoutput from the model, wherein to process the text includes operationsto: determine a vertical arrangement of the respective words in thetext, wherein the vertical arrangement positions the respective wordsvertically among separate lines or continuous units based onconstituency; determine a horizontal arrangement of the respective wordsin the text, wherein the horizontal arrangement positions groups of oneor more of the respective words among the separate lines or continuousunits based on dependency; identify formatting applicable to the text toimplement the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement; andgenerate the cascade data with the formatting applicable to the text;and provide the text and the cascade data for output, the cascade dataspecifying the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement forthe output of the respective words in the text.
 32. The machine-readablemedium of claim 31, wherein the respective words provide a plurality ofconstituents, and wherein the vertical arrangement of the respectivewords groups each constituent of the plurality of constituents into theseparate lines or continuous units.
 33. The machine-readable medium ofclaim 31, wherein the cascade data specifies the vertical arrangementand the horizontal arrangement using line breaks for use in the outputof the vertical arrangement and indentation for use in the output of thehorizontal arrangement.
 34. The machine-readable medium of claim 31,wherein the machine learning model is further trained to receiveconstituency information and dependency information as input, whereinthe constituency information identifies constituents among therespective words and wherein the dependency information identifiesdependencies among the respective words, wherein the machine learningmodel uses the constituency information and the dependency informationto determine the horizontal arrangement, and wherein the horizontalarrangement provides a same horizontal displacement for the constituentsthat have a dependency relationship to a same head or a dependencyrelationship on each other.
 35. The machine-readable medium of claim 34,wherein the constituency information and the dependency information isobtained from the text using a natural language processing service. 36.The machine-readable medium of claim 31, wherein training of the machinelearning model includes validating at least one output produced by themachine learning model.
 37. The machine-readable medium of claim 31,wherein the machine learning model is trained from a plurality of textexamples and a plurality of cascade examples corresponding to theplurality of text examples.
 38. The machine-readable medium of claim 37,wherein the machine learning model is trained with a stochastic machinelearning method.
 39. The machine-readable medium of claim 31, whereinthe cascade data provides formatting characteristics for display of thecascaded arrangement of the text.
 40. The machine-readable medium ofclaim 31, wherein the display of the cascaded arrangement of the text isenhanced with one or more of: highlighting, color-coding, underlining,or accompanying audio information.
 41. A method for producing a cascadedarrangement of text using a machine learning model, comprising:obtaining text that includes respective words; using a trained machinelearning model to process the text, the machine learning model trainedto receive the text as input to the model and generate cascade data asoutput from the model, wherein to process the text includes operationsto: determine a vertical arrangement of the respective words in thetext, wherein the vertical arrangement positions the respective wordsvertically among separate lines or continuous units based onconstituency; determine a horizontal arrangement of the respective wordsin the text, wherein the horizontal arrangement positions groups of oneor more of the respective words among the separate lines or continuousunits based on dependency; identify formatting applicable to the text toimplement the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement; andgenerate the cascade data with the formatting applicable to the text;and providing the text and the cascade data for output, the cascade dataspecifying the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement forthe output of the respective words in the text.
 42. The method of claim41, wherein the respective words provide a plurality of constituents,and wherein the vertical arrangement of the respective words groups eachconstituent of the plurality of constituents into the separate lines orcontinuous units.
 43. The method of claim 41, wherein the cascade dataspecifies the vertical arrangement and the horizontal arrangement usingline breaks for use in the output of the vertical arrangement andindentation for use in the output of the horizontal arrangement.
 44. Themethod of claim 41, wherein the machine learning model is furthertrained to receive constituency information and dependency informationas input, wherein the constituency information identifies constituentsamong the respective words and wherein the dependency informationidentifies dependencies among the respective words, wherein the machinelearning model uses the constituency information and the dependencyinformation to determine the horizontal arrangement, and wherein thehorizontal arrangement provides a same horizontal displacement for theconstituents that have a dependency relationship to a same head or adependency relationship on each other.
 45. The method of claim 44,wherein the constituency information and the dependency information isobtained from the text using a natural language processing service. 46.The method of claim 41, wherein training of the machine learning modelincludes validating at least one output produced by the machine learningmodel.
 47. The method of claim 41, wherein the machine learning model istrained from a plurality of text examples and a plurality of cascadeexamples corresponding to the plurality of text examples.
 48. The methodof claim 47, wherein the machine learning model is trained with astochastic machine learning method.
 49. The method of claim 41, whereinthe cascade data provides formatting characteristics for display of thecascaded arrangement of the text.
 50. The method of claim 49, whereinthe display of the cascaded arrangement of the text is enhanced with oneor more of: highlighting, color-coding, underlining, or accompanyingaudio information.